Project on Plastic to Fuel - [PDF Document] (2024)

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A PROJECT REPORT ON

PLASTIC TO FUEL MACHINE

2014

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for theaward of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology in

Polymer Engineering of Mahatma Gandhi University

BY

AJMAL ROSHAN T. J, SWATHI E& SANJAY R.

Department of Polymer Engineering

Mahatma Gandhi University College of Engineering

Muttom P. O, Thodupuzha, Kerala–685 587

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MAHATMA GANDHI UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Muttom P.O, Thodupuzha, Kerala–685 587

DEPARTMENT OF POLYMER ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled “PLASTIC TO FUELMACHINE”,

submitted by AJMAL ROSHAN T. J.(Reg.No.10018674), SWATHIE.(Reg.No.10018699)& SANJAY R. (Reg.No.10018692) to theDepartment of Polymer Engineering, MahatmaGandhi University Collegeof Engineering, Thodupuzha, in partial fulfilment oftherequirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor ofTechnology in Polymer Engineeringfrom Mahatma Gandhi University,Kottayam, Kerala, is an authentic report of the project

presented by them during the academic year2013-2014.

Dr. Josephine George

Head of the Department

Polymer Engineering

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The successful completion of any task is incomplete if we do notmention

the people who made it possible. It is a Great pleasure toexpress our sincere

gratitude to Prof. K.T. SUBRAMANIAN, Principal, MGUCE, forhis

guidance, advice and encouragement.

We are greatly indebted to Dr. Josephine George, Head of the

Department of Polymer Engineering, for her valuable help andguidance at

different stages of this work.

We thank all the faculty and staff of Polymer Engineeringdepartment,

faculties of fuel testing lab at National Institute ofTechnology- Calicut, our

friends and family for their support and constant encouragementthroughout this

work.

Above all we thank GODalmighty without whom this taskwould not

have been a success.

AJMAL ROSHAN T. J, SWATHI E& SANJAY R.

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About the Team

1. Dr. Josephine George

H.O.D.

Polymer Engineering,

Mahatma Gandhi University College of Engineering,Thodupuzha.

2.

AJMAL ROSHAN T. J.

THAMARATH HOUSE

PALAYOOR CHURCH ROAD

CHACVAKKAD P.O.

THRISSUR-680506

E- mail:[emailprotected]

Mob: 9961161870

3. SANJAY R.

MENASSERIL HOUSE

C.M.C-1,

CHER THALA P.O.

ALAPUZHA-688524

E- mail:[emailprotected]

Mob:- 9995069478

4. Swathi E.

E-mail: [emailprotected]

mailto:[emailprotected]:[emailprotected]:[emailprotected]:[emailprotected]:[emailprotected]:[emailprotected]:[emailprotected]:[emailprotected]

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CONTENTS

1. Abstract…………………………………………………………………..7

2. Introduction

2.1. Plastics…………………………………….………...……………….8

2.2. Common Plastic Uses…….………………………………………….9

2.3. Special-Purpose Plastics……….…………………………………...10

2.4. Advantages of Plastic………………………..……………………...11

2.5. Disadvantages of Plastic……………………….……………………11

2.6. Plastic Production, Consumption andGrowth……….……….......12

2.7. Plastics in Procurement………….…….…………………..………13

2.8. Manufacture………………………….…………...…………...…....13

2.9. Health Impacts ofManufacture…..……………...…...…….…......14

2.10. Sources and Types of PlasticWastes…………….………….…...15

2.11. Plastic Waste Recycling………………………...…………….…..16

2.12. Some Attempts for Plastic Recycling……..……………………...18

2.13. Alternative Methods…………………..……………………….....20

3. Objective…………………………………..…………..………………...22

4. Experimental details

4.1. Principles of the Machine………………………………...…..…22

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4.2. Process Carried Out in the Machine

4.2.1. Pyrolysis………………………………………...…………23

4.2.2. Process…………………………………………………..…23

4.3. Parts of the Machine

4.3.1 Reactor………………...……………….…………….…….24

4.3.2. Catalytic cracker………………………..………….……..26

4.3.3. Condenser…………….…………………………….……..27

4.3.4. Nitrogen Cylinder….……………………………………..28

4.4.Materials used…….…………………...……………….…………28

4.5. Laboratory Set Up……………………………………………….30

4.6. Process to be carried out………………...……….……..……….31

4.7. Inferences Drawn From Experiment…..………….……….…...32

5. Test for Characterizing Output

5.1. Calorific Value……………..……………………………….……33

5.1.1 Principle………………………………….……..………….33

5.1.2. Procedure……………..…..………………...……………..34

5.1.3. Calculations……………………...………...…………...….35

5.2. Viscosity………………………………………………...…………36

5.3. Acidity (Acid value)

5.3.1. Definition…….…………………………....………..…..….37

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5.3.2. Procedure……….…...……………………...........….…….38

5.4. Density and SpecificGravity.……………………..…..….……..38

6. Results and Discussions

6.1. Test Results

6.1.1. Calorific Value………………………..………..…..……40

6.1.2. Viscosity…………….………………………….…………42

6.1.3. Acidity (Acidvalue)..........................................................44

6.1.4. Density and Specific Gravity……………..……..…..….46

6.2. Role of Catalyst in the process……..…....….…..…………….50

6.3. Molecular Structure of the Catalyst….……….…………….51

6.4 Process taking place in a Catalytic Reactor……...………….51

6.5. Features of Catalyst to be used…………..……….…….…….52

6.6. Cracking of Molecules in Reactor in Presence ofCatalyst....53

6.7. Regeneration of catalyst………………………...…………….53

6.8. Need of Catalytic Cracking………...……….………………...54

7. Conclusion…………………………………………………..………..….55

8. References…………………………………………………….…............56

9. Certifications,……………………………………………………………58

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1. ABSTRACT

Polymers are finding extensive application in our day to daylife. The

low density, high strength to weight ratio, ease of processingetc. make them attractive over

other conventional materials. The various fields of applicationsof polymers includes different

sectors such as structural and non-structural, automobile,medical, aerospace etc. Extensive

use results in accumulation of waste plastics. The safe disposalof waste plastics is a major

problem faced by the polymer industry. The combustion ofpolymers can release so many

toxic gases to the atmosphere and can lead to majorenvironmental hazards. Since crude oil is

the starting material for the production of plastic, the reverseprocessing of plastic back to

crude oil is an innovative method for better disposal ofplastics. Waste plastics are heated in a

reactor at a temperature of about 350- 450℃provided withan inert atmosphere. The waste

plastics used include, Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene(PP), and Polystyrene (PS). The long

chain molecules of these plastics is first broken into shorterchain molecules in the reactor

and then broken into small molecules in the catalytic cracker.The final product is mixed oil

that consists of gasoline, diesel oil, kerosene and the like.The machine and process for

making oil are totally based on environment-friendly concept.Plastics suitable for converting

into oil are PP (Garbage bag, cookie bag, CD case, etc.), PE(Vinyl bag, medical product, cap

of PET bottle etc.) and PS (Cup Noodle Bowl, lunch box,Styrofoam etc.).

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2. INTRODUCTION

2.1. Plastics

As a brief introduction to plastics, it can be said thatplastics are

synthetic organic materials produced by polymerization. They aretypically of high molecular

mass, and may contain other substances besides polymers toimprove performance and/or

reduce costs. These polymers can be moulded or extruded intodesired shapes. Plastic is the

general common term for a wide range of synthetic orsemi-synthetic organic amorphous

solid materials used in the manufacture of industrial products.Plastics are typically polymers

of high molecular mass, and may contain other substances toimprove performance and/or

reduce costs. Monomers of Plastic are either natural orsynthetic organic compounds. The

word is derived from the Greek past (plastikos) meaning fit formoulding, and past (plastos)

meaning moulded. It refers to their malleability or plasticityduring manufacture that allows

them to be cast, pressed, or extruded into a variety of shapessuch as films, fibres, plates,

tubes, bottles, boxes, and much more. The common word plasticshould not be confused with

the technical adjective plastic, which is applied to anymaterial which undergoes a permanent

change of shape (plastic deformation) when strained beyond acertain point. Aluminium, for

instance, is plastic in this sense, but not a plastic in thecommon sense; in contrast, in their

finished forms, some plastics will break before deforming andtherefore are not plastic in the

technical sense. There are two main types of plastics:thermoplastics and thermosetting

polymers.

Thermoplastics can repeatedly soften and melt if enoughheat is applied and hardened

on cooling, so that they can be made into new plastics products.Examples arepolyethylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride,among others.

Thermosets or thermosettings can melt and take shape onlyonce. They are not

suitable for repeated heat treatments; therefore after they havesolidified, they stay

solid. Examples are phenol formaldehyde and ureaformaldehyde

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2.2. Common Plastic Uses Polypropylene(PP) - Foodcontainers, appliances, car fenders (bumpers), plastic

pressure pipe systems.

Polystyrene(PS) -Packaging foam, food containers,disposable cups, plates, cutlery,

CD and cassette boxes.

High impact polystyrene (HIPS) - Fridge liners, foodpackaging, vending cups.

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

Electronic equipment cases (e.g., computer monitors, printers,keyboards), drainage

pipe

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

Carbonated drinks bottles, jars, plastic film, microwavablepackaging.

Polyester (PES)

Fibers,textiles.

Polyamides (PA) (Nylons)

Fibers, toothbrush bristles, fishing line, under-the-hood carengine mouldings. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Plumbing pipes and guttering, shower curtains, window frames,flooring.

Polyurethanes (PU)

Cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface coatings,printing rollers.

(Currently 6th or 7th most commonly used plastic material, forinstance the most

commonly used plastic found in cars).

Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) (Saran)Foodpackaging.

Polyethylene (PE)

Wide range of inexpensive uses including supermarket bags,plastic bottles.

Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene(PC/ABS)

A blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic. Used incar interior and

exterior parts,and mobile phone bodies.

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2.3. Special-Purpose Plastics:

Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)

Contact lenses, glazing (best known in this form by its varioustrade names around the

world; e.g., Perspex, Oroglas, Plexiglas), aglets, fluorescentlight diffusers, rear light

covers for vehicles.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things likenon-stick surfaces for frying

pans, plumber's tape and water slides. It is more commonlyknown as Teflon.

Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) (Polyetherketone)

Strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic,biocompatibility allows for use in

medical implant applications, aerospace mouldings. One of themost expensive

commercial polymers.

Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem)

A high temperature, chemically stable polymer that does notcrystallize.

Phenolics (PF) or (phenol formaldehydes)

High modulus, relatively heat resistant, and excellent fireresistant polymer. Used for

insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminatedproducts (e.g., Formica),

thermally insulation foams. It is a thermosetting plastic, withthe familiar trade name

Bakelite, that can be moulded by heat and pressure when mixedwith a filler-like

wood flour or can be cast in its unfilled liquid form or cast asfoam (e.g., Oasis).

Problems include the probability of mouldings naturally beingdark colours (red,

green, brown), and as thermoset difficult to recycle.

Urea-formaldehyde (UF)

One of the aminoplasts and used as a multi-colorable alternativeto phenolics. Used as

a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) andelectrical switch housings.

Melamine formaldehyde (MF)

One of the aminoplasts, and used as a multi-colorablealternative to phenolics, for

instance in mouldings (e.g., break-resistance alternatives toceramic cups, plates and

bowls for children) and the decorated top surface layer ofthe paper laminates (e.g.,

Formica).

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Polylactic acid (PLA)

A biodegradable, thermoplastic found converted into a variety ofaliphatic polyesters

derived from lactic acid which in turn can be made byfermentation of various

agricultural products such as corn starch, once made from dairyproducts

2.4. Advantages of Plastic:

1) They are light in weight.

2) They are strong, good and cheap to produce.

3) They are unbreakable

4) Used to make - Water bottles, pens, plastic bags, cupsetc.

5) They are good water resistant and have good adhesiveproperties.

6) They can be easily moulded and have excellentfinishing

7) They are corrosion resistant.

8) They are chemical resistant

9) Plastic is used for building, construction,electronics, packaging and transportation

industries.

10)They are odourless.

2.5. Disadvantages of Plastic:

1) They are non renewable resources.

2) They produce toxic fumes when burnt.

3)

They are low heat resistant and poor ductility.

4) They are non biodegradable.

5) They harm the environment by choking the drains.

6) The poisonous gaseous product produced by thedecomposition plastic can causes

CANCER

7) They are embrittlement at low temperature anddeformation at high pressure.

8) The recycling of plastic is not cost effective processand even more expensive

compare to its manufacturing.

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9) Plastic materials like plastic bags are mostly end upas harmful waste in landfill which

may pollute the environment and threatening our health.

10)The biodegradation of plastic takes 500 to 1,000 yearsJapan

2.6. Plastic Production, Consumption and Growth

Economic growth and changing consumption and production patternsare

resulting into rapid increase in generation of waste plastics inthe world. In Asia and the

Pacific, as well as many other developing regions, plasticconsumption has increased much

more than the world average due to rapid urbanization andeconomic development. The

world‟s annual consumption of plastic materials has increasedfrom around 5 million tonnes

in the 1950s to nearly 100 million tonnes; thus, 20 times moreplastic is produced today than

50 years ago. This implies that on the one hand, more resourcesare being used to meet the

increased demand of plastic, and on the other hand, more plasticwaste is being generated.

Due to the increase in generation, waste plastics are becoming amajor stream in solid waste.

After food waste and paper waste, plastic waste is the majorconstitute of municipal and

industrial waste in cities. Even the cities with low economicgrowth have started producing

more plastic waste due to plastic packaging, plastic shoppingbags, PET bottles and other

goods/appliances using plastic as the major component. Thisincrease has turned into a major

challenge for local authorities, responsible for solid wastemanagement and sanitation. Due to

lack of integrated solid waste management, most of the plasticwaste is neither collected

properly nor disposed of in appropriate manner to avoidits negative impacts on environment

and public health and waste plastics are causing littering andchocking of sewerage system.

The World's annual consumption of plastic materials hasincreased from around 5 to nearly

100 million tonnes in the last 50 years, with plastic being thematerial of choice in nearly half

of all packaged goods. The poverty-related impacts arising fromplastics are complex and lie

in the areas of health and disposal and they mainly occur inparts of the developing world. In

addition, plastic production use and disposal also has a rangeof environmental impacts which

has been the focus of much concern from NGOs, scientists andpolicy makers. There are also

crosscutting poverty, health and social issues related toplastics.

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2.7. Plastics in Procurement

Plastic is a miracle material that has supported and driveninnovation in the

supply and delivery of products, but also a problematicsubstance that uses non-renewable

resources, creates pollution in manufacture and use and presentsa global issue for disposal.

Plastics are found in a vast range of products, either as aprimary material or as a component.

Plastics have also, due to reasons of weight, flexibility,usability and cost, become a primary

material used for packaging, containers, furniture andconstruction materials. As a result of

this diverse range of uses it is likely that many procurementactivities will involve the

purchase of plastics either directly or indirectly.

2.8. Manufacture

The vast majority of plastics are produced from the processingof

petrochemicals (derived from crude oil). In the US,plastic manufacture (as a feedstock and

energy source) is estimated to consume approximately 4.6% oftotal oil consumption (US

Energy Information Association, 2009). Petrochemical basedplastics are manufactured

through the “cracking” of oil and natural gas in order toproduce different hydrocarbons.

These are chemically processed to produce monomers (smallchemical molecules that can

bond with others) which then undergo a polymerisationprocess (bonding with other

monomers into long chain chemicals) to produce polymers. Theseundergo further

processing, normally using additives to change their“feel”, colour or performance, to

produce feedstock. Usually in the form of pellets, thiscan be transported and further

processed through heat and moulding to make finishedproducts. As with any heavy industrialprocess, plasticsmanufacture can give rise to a range of environmental and socialimpacts,

some of which can give rise to poverty considerations. Pollutionof water courses and local

air quality impacts in parts of the developing world candirectly affect the quality of life and

opportunities of local people, as they often depend upon fishingand hunting for their

livelihoods.

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Figure 1: Plastic waste are used for land filling.

2.10. Sources and Types of Plastic Wastes

Plastic wastes arise from different sources, commercial,industrial, household, construction,demolition, radioactive andhospital wastes. Plastic in commercial wastes, such as fromretailstores and offices, are managed alone with other wastes fromtheir sources and usuallycombined with household wastes. Specialsource of plastic waste is discarded agriculturemulch (film).

Table 1: Plastics and their products

Sl. No. Types of plastics Industries1 High DensityPolyethylene

(HDPE)

Plastic containers

2 Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) Milk bags and otherpackaging

materials

3 Polypropylene (PP) Plastic ropes and cups

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Apart from these, we do use polymers as coating material inpaint industries and adhesive

industries but these do not come as a plastic waste. The varioussource of plastics wastes are

given below:

Table 2: Waste generation from plastics

2.11. Plastic Waste Recycling

On the other hand, plastic waste recycling can provide anopportunity to

collect and dispose of plastic waste in the most environmentalfriendly way and it can beconverted into a resource. Thermoplasticwastes can be recycled. Recycling of thermosetting

materials is more difficult because of the properties of thesematerials, but they are recycled

as fuel and are used sometimes, by grinding, as fillers in thenew thermosetting materials. For

example, large volumes of tyres from cars, bicycles andtricycles, find application as

materials for calorific utilization .In contrast to siting ofnew landfills or incinerators

facilities, recycling tends to be a politically popularalternatives for the most part. At

industrial scrap level, recycling of plastics grew rapidly afterthe increase in oil prices of the

mid 1970‟s and it now occupies a common place.

Plastic recycling requires information in following threeareas:

Collection and Separation of plastic wastes

Reprocessing technology

Economic viability of the recycled products

In terms of world technology, Europe is the most advanced inrecycling andseparation of different plastics. Despite practicingrecycling within a manufacturing system,

Sl. No. Types of Wastes Mode of Generation

1 Post-Consumer Plastics By the consumers

2 Industrial Plastics Various industrial Sectors

3 Scrap Plastics and fabricator By the plastic compounder

4 Nuisance Plastics Plastic wastes that find

difficult in recycling

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Japan seems to be devoted to incineration and the use of ash inend products. In the North

America the current incentive for research in these areas isdriven by the rapid reduction of

environmentally safe landfill and expensive systems required forincineration.

The recycling concept of plastics, in effect made its beginningin India in late

sixties. Though earlier on cottage scale, scrap celluloseacetate film and acrylic scrap

continued to find their place in the bangle industry as also forrecovery of monomer. For a

long time, no attempt seem to have been made to record andquantify the plastic wastes,

collected from various sources and get converted into a range ofplastics finished goods; Nor

have there been any attempts to regulate or standardize thequality of recycled materials used.

The recycling metals, papers and glasses are quite advanced inIndia, but the recycling of

plastics is not viable due to the following reasons:

Less quantity of plastic wastes

Limited technology available for recycling ofplastic.

In addition, in other countries, the composition and constituentof the plastic is

explicitly written on the products while in India manufacturershide these information due to

trade secret. This poses problems in the recycling of plastics.The management of plastics

waste could be a major problem, and whether this would beenvironmentally friendly, is

required to be assessed carefully. With the size of our countryand the requirement of plastics

as useful materials for various domestic and industrialapplications, it would not be

appropriate to classify “plastics” as environmental hazards, asthese certainly do not become

a “hazard” even if these go into garbage as wastes or in factdiscarded items. Their collection,

sorting and recycling and reuse and judiciously for identifiedcritical and non-critical

applications with a view to recover the raw materials, areimportant issues that need to be

regulated and coordinated.

2.12. Some Attempts for Plastic Recycling

In most of the situations, plastic waste recycling could also beeconomically

viable, as it generates resources, which are in high demand.Plastic waste recycling also has a

great potential for resource conservation and GHG emissionsreduction, such as producing

diesel fuel from plastic waste. This resource conservation goalis very important for most of

the national and local governments, where rapidindustrialization and economic developmentis putting a lot ofpressure on natural resources. Some of the developed countrieshave

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already established commercial level resource recovery fromwaste plastics. Therefore,

having a “latecomer‟s advantage,” developing countries can learnfrom these experiences and

technologies available to them.

To raise the awareness and to build the capacity of localstakeholders, UNEP has

started to promote Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM)system based on 3R

(reduce, reuse and recycle) principle. This covers all the wastestreams and all the stages of

waste management chain, viz.: source segregation, collection andtransportation, treatment

and material/energy recovery and final disposal. It has beenshown that with appropriate

segregation and recycling system significant quantity of wastecan be diverted from landfills

and converted into resource. Developing and implementing ISWMrequires comprehensive

data on present and anticipated waste situations, supportivepolicy frameworks, knowledgeand capacity to develop plans/systems,proper use of environmentally sound technologies,

and appropriate financial instruments to support itsimplementation. Many national

governments, therefore, have approached UNEP, [as reflected inthe decision taken by the

UNEP Governing Council/Global Ministerial Environment Forumduring its 25 thSession in

February 2009 (UNEP/GC.25/CW/L.3)] to get further support fortheir national and local

efforts in implementation of the Integrated Solid WasteManagement (ISWM) programme.

Plastics are durable and degrade very slowly; the molecular

bonds that make plastic so durable make it equallyresistant to natural processes of

degradation. Since the 1950s, one billion tons of plastic hasbeen discarded and may persist

for hundreds or even thousands of years. In some cases, burningplastic can release toxic

fumes. Burning the plastic polyvinyl chloride (PVC) may createdioxin. Also, the

manufacturing of plastics often creates large quantities ofchemical pollutants. By 1995,

plastic recycling programs were common in the UnitedStates and elsewhere. Thermoplastics

can be remelted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be groundup and used as filler,

though the purity of the material tends to degrade with eachreuse cycle. There are methods

by which plastics can be broken back down to a feedstockstate.

To assist recycling of disposable items, the Plastic BottleInstitute of the Society of the

Plastics Industry devised a now-familiar scheme to mark plasticbottles by plastic type. A

plastic container using this scheme is marked with atriangle of three cyclic arrows, which

encloses a number giving the plastic type:

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Table 3: Plastic identification code

2.13. Alternative Methods

Unfortunately, recycling plastics has proven difficult. Thebiggest problem

with plastic recycling is that it is difficult to automate thesorting of plastic waste, and so it is

labour intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by lookingat the resin identification

code, though common containers like soda bottles can be sortedfrom memory. Other

recyclable materials, such as metals, are easier to processmechanically. However, newmechanical sorting processes are beingutilized to increase plastic recycling capacity and

efficiency.

While containers are usually made from a single type and colourof plastic, making them

relatively easy to sort out, a consumer product like a cellularphone may have many small

parts consisting of over a dozen different types andcolours of plastics. In a case like this, the

resources it would take to separate the plastics far exceedtheir value and the item is

discarded. However, developments are taking place in the fieldof Active Disassembly, which

may result in more consumer product components being re-used orrecycled. Recycling

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certain types of plastics can be unprofitable, as well. Forexample, polystyrene is rarely

recycled because it is usually not cost effective. Theseun-recycled wastes are typically

disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to produceelectricity at waste-to-energy plants.

The biggest threat to the conventional plastics industry is mostlikely to be

environmental concerns, including the release of toxicpollutants, greenhouse gas, non-

biodegradable landfill impact as a result of theproduction and disposal of plastics. Of

particular concern has been the recent accumulation ofenormous quantities of plastic trash in

ocean gyres.

Hence we should find a suitable solution for the existence ofthese waste plastics in

our environment. The plastic to fuel machine deals with therecycling of plastics into suitable

form of fuel. For many years, various methods are tried andtested for processing of waste

plastic. The plastic materials are recycled and low valueproducts are prepared. Plastic

materials which cannot be recycled are usually dumped intoundesirable landfill. Worldwide

almost 20% of the waste stream is plastic, most of which stillends up in landfill or at worst it

is incinerated. This is a terrible waste of a valuable resourcecontaining a high level of latent

energy. In recent year this practice has become less and lessdesirable due to opposition from

Government and environmentally conscious community groups. Thevalue of plastics going

to landfill is showing a marginal reduction despite extensivecommunity awareness and

education programs. Research Centre for Fuel Generation (RCFG)has conducted successful

300 successful pilot trials and commercial trials for conversionof waste plastic materials into

high grade industrial fuel. The system uses liquefaction,pyrolysis and the catalytic

breakdown of plastic materials and conversion intoindustrial fuel and gases. The system can

handle the majority of plastic materials that are currentlybeing sent to landfill or which have

a low recycle value. Catalytic conversion of waste plastic intohigh value product is a

superior method of reusing this valuable resource.

The distillate fuel is an excellent fuel and can be used for

1) Diesel electrical generators

2) Diesel burners / stoves

3) Boilers

4) Hot air generators

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4. Experimental Details

4.1. Principles of the Machine

All plastics are polymers mostly containing carbon and hydrogenand few other

elements like chlorine, nitrogen, etc. Polymers are made up ofsmall molecules, called

monomers, which combine together and form large molecules,called polymers.

When this long chain of polymers breaks at certain points, orwhen lower molecular weight

fractions are formed, this is termed as degradation of polymers.This is reverse of

polymerization or de-polymerization.

If such breaking of long polymeric chain or scission of bondsoccurs randomly, it is

called Random depolymerization. Here the polymer degrades tolower molecular fragments.

In the process of conversion of waste plastics into fuels,random depolymerization is carried

out in a specially designed reactor in the absence of oxygen andin the presence of coal andcertain catalytic additives. The maximumreaction temperature is 350°C. There is total

conversion of waste plastics into value-added fuel products.

4.2. ProcessCarried out in the Machine

4.2.1. Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is a process of thermal degradation in the absence ofoxygen. Plastic

& Rubber waste is continuously treated in a cylindricalchamber and the pyrolytic gases are

condensed in a specially-designed condenser system. This yieldsa hydrocarbon distillate

comprising straight and branched chain aliphatic, cyclicaliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons.

The resulting mixture is essentially the equivalent to petroleumdistillate. The plastic / Rubber

is pyrolised at 350-450⁰C and the pyrolysis gases are condensedin a series of condensers to

give a low sulphur content distillate. Pyrolysis is a verypromising and reliable technology for

the chemical recycling of plastic wastes. Countries like UK,USA, and Germany etc have

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successfully implemented this technology and commercialproduction of monomers using

pyrolysis has already begun there.

Pyrolysis offers a great hope in generating fuel oils, which areheavily priced

now. This reduces the economical burden on developing countries.The capital cost required

to invest on pyrolysis plant is low compared to othertechnologies. So, this technology may

be an initiative to solve fuel crisis and the problems dueto disposal of plastics.

4.2.2. Process

Under controlled reaction conditions, plastics materials undergorandom de-

polymerization and are converted into three products:

a) Solid Fuel i.e., co*keb) Liquid Fuel i.e., Combinationof Gasoline, Kerosene, Diesel and Lube Oil

c) Gaseous Fuel i.e., LPG range gas

The process consists of two steps:

i) Random de-polymerization

- Loading of waste plastics into the reactor along with theCatalyst system.- Random de-polymerization of the wasteplastics.

ii) Fractional Distillation

- Separation of various liquid fuels by virtue of the differencein their boiling points.

One important factor of the quality of the liquid fuel is thatthe sulphur content is less than

0.002ppm which is much lower than the level found in regularfuel.

4.3. Parts of the Machine

4.3.1 REACTOR

Reactor is the major component of this machine. There arecertain critical factors and

they are

Type of feed

Reactor atmosphere

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Temperature

Pressure

Typical Feedfor the Machine

Table 4: Typical Feed for Machine

Sl.

No.

POLYMER DESCRIPTION As a feed stock

for liquid fuel

1 PE, PP, PS Typical feed stock for

fuel production due to

high heat value and

clean exhaust gas

Allowed

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2 PET, Phenolic resin ,PVA,

polyoxymethylene

Lower heat value than

above plastics

Not allowed

3 Polyamide,

Polyurethane,Polysulphide

Fuel from this type of

plastics is a hazardous

component such as NOx

and Sox in flue gas.

Not allowed

4 PVC, Poly vinylidenechloride and fluro carbon

polymers.

Source of hazardous andcorrosive flue gas up on

thermal treatment and

combustion

Not allowed

From the table it is very clear that the typical feed in themachine are PE,PP and PS

4.3.2. CATALYTIC CRACKER

Catalytic cracking is the breaking of large hydrocarbonmolecules into smaller and

more useful bits. Catalytic cracker is provided with catalystinside. The cracker must be

designed in such a way that the vapour from the reactor musthave maximum surface contact

with the catalyst. The catalyst will act as a molecular sievewhich permits the passage of

small molecules. There is no single unique reaction happening inthe cracker. The

hydrocarbon molecules are broken up in a fairly random way toproduce mixtures of smaller

hydrocarbons, some of which have carbon-carbon double bonds.

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4.3.3. CONDENSER

It‟s the part of machine which condenses the vapourscoming out from the catalytic

cracker.

The condenser must condense the very hot vapors in anefficient manner to give the

condensate

Clogging in the condenser must be prevented. This can beachieved by increasing the

diameter of the pipe

In this machine, we are using a spiral condenser to increase theefficiency of

condensation

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4.3.4. NI TROGEN CYLI NDER

Inert atmosphere in the reactor is provided by pumping nitrogenfrom a nitrogen

cylinder attached to the reactor.

Purpose: plastic feed should not burn instead it should melt athigh temperature inside the reactor.

4.4. Materials Used

Polymers used

Polyethylene (PE)

Polypropylene (PP)

Polystyrene (PS)

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Catalyst Used

ZSM-5, Zeolite Socony Mobil–5, is analuminosilicatezeolite belonging to the

pentasil family of zeolites. Its chemical formula isNanAlnSi96–nO192·16H2O (0

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infinity. The structure is orthorhombic (space group Pnma) athigh temperatures, but a phase

transition to

the monoclinic space group P21/n.1.13 occurs on cooling below atransition temperature,

located between 300 and 350 K.

ZSM-5 catalyst was first synthesized by Argauer and Landolt in1972. It is a medium

pore zeolite with channels defined by ten-membered rings.The synthesis involves three

different solutions. The first solution is the source ofalumina, sodium ions, and hydroxide

ions; in the presence of excess base the alumina will formsoluble Al(OH)4–ions. The second

solution has the tetrapropylammoniumcation that acts as atemplating agent. The third

solution is the source of silica, one of the basic buildingblocks for the framework structure of

a zeolite. Mixing the three solutions produces supersaturatedtetrapropylammonium ZSM-5,

which can be heated to recrystallize and produce asolid.

4.5.Laboratory Set Up30g of weighed plastic granules arefed into the round bottom flask. The round bottom flask

is provided with a continuous supply of inert nitrogen gas usinga nitrogen gas cylinder. Heat

is provided by using Bunsen burner which may be between350-450⁰C. It is the temperature

at which plastic begins to melt and vaporise. The vapours arepassed through the catalyst

which is kept at a certain temperature. The vapours are thencondensed using a condenser

attached to round bottom flask. At the end of condenser, thedistillate is collected. The

amount of distillate obtained is measured. The colour of thedistillate is noted. The time andtemperature at which thedistillate is obtained is also noted. 1ml of distillate is taken ina

china dish and it is ignited. It burns and the time taken forignition is noted. The experiment is

repeated with different plastics such as LDPE, HDPE, PP, PS,plastic wastes (mainly plastic

carry bags, CD case etc.)

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4.6. Process to be carried out:

Pretreatment of plastics. i.e. removal of water andimpurities

Loading of treated plastic into fluidized bed reactorprovided with refractory bricks.

Heating the materials to 350-450 degree Celsius in aninert atmosphere.

Inert atmosphere is provided by a nitrogen cylinderconnected to the reactor.

Carrying the vapours to a catalytic chamber provided withsuitable catalyst

Purpose of catalyst is to crack long chain hydrocarbons intosmall chain

molecules. it is also involved the isomerisation of themolecules.ie, linear

hydrocarbon chain changed into branched because the branchedones have higher

octane number which is the major component of the fuel.

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Designing of the catalytic cracker in such a way that itshould provide maximum

surface contact of the vapours with the catalyst.

Plastics that has been cut into coarse granules is fed into atrough. It then moves through

various tubes and chambers. Through the process, the plastic isheated into a liquid and then

into a gas, and then cooled. At the end, a light coloured oildrips from a spigot into a

receptable (The machine can process about 10kg of plastic andproduce about 10 litres of oil

every hour and can run continuously around the clock). The onlyother by-products include a

tiny bit of carbon residue, CO2 and water vapour.

Just about any plastic can be fed into the machine. Paperlabels and a little dirt won‟t

hurt it, but the material should be relatively dry. The oil thatcomes out is a blend of gasoline,

diesel, kerosene and some heavy oils. It can be fed directlyinto an oil furnace or could be

processed further into something that could go straightinto a diesel car.

4.7.Inferences Drawn From Experiment

Polystyrene (PS) is a solvent for rubber ( It dissolved therubber tube used for theexperiment)

Mainly polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene(PS) only gives such

distillate

Plastic waste gives only less amount of distillate thanpure polymer granules (since it

contains other additives in it)

In case of polystyrene (PS), more smoky fumes areproduced due to its structural

properties arising due to its aromatic structureBecause the entire process takes place inside vacuum and theplastic is melted and not

burned, minimal to no toxins are released in to theair

Burning pure hydrocarbons such as PE and PP will producea fuel that burns fairly

clean

While burning PVC large amounts of chlorine will corrodethe reactor and pollute the

environment

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Different tests have been carried out to study and compare thefuel characteristics of different

samples and those of petrol and diesel which are used as thestandard reference. The

characteristics which are studied are:

5. Test for Characterizing Output

5.1. Calorific Value

It is the amount of heat produced by the complete combustion offuel. It is measured in

units of energy per amount of material.eg: kJ /kg

Instrument used : Bomb Calorimeter

5.1.1 Principle:

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A weighed sample of the fuel is burned in oxygen in a bombcalorimeter under

controlled conditions. The calorific value is calculated fromthe weight of the sample and the

rise in temperature of the water.

1. Stand with illuminators and magnifiers

2. Thermometer

3. Motor

4. Stirrer

5. Lid

6. Outer jacket

7.

Calorimeter vessel8. Bomb assembly

9. Electrical connecting leads

10.Schrader valve

11.Ignition wire

12.Crucible

13.Water

14.

Firing unit

5.1.2. Procedure

Weigh a suitable quantity of sample of fuel whose calorificvalue is to be found out,

in a stainless steel oil cup to the nearest 0.1 mg. For solidfuels make a pellet of the fuel and

weigh it to the nearest 0.1 mg. Place the pellet in the crucibleinside the bomb.

Place the oil cup in the circular ring attached to the terminalsof the bomb for liquid fuels.

Attach a length of nichrome wire across the bomb terminals.Weigh a suitable length of dry

cotton or a strip of filter paper, and tie or support it as thecase requires, at the centre of

nichrome wire, so that its free end dips into the contents ofthe oil cup

Admit oxygen from the cylinder slowly, so that the oil is notblown from the cup until the

appropriate pressure is reached. For aviation and motor fuels,this pressure must lie between

25 and 30atm and for kerosene and heavier fuels between 25 and27 atm.

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The calorimeter vessel is filled with water such that the coverof the bomb will be submerged

within it when placed in position.

Place the prepared bomb with electrical leads, in the water inthe calorimeter. Check that

there is no leakage of oxygen. Confirm that the firing leads aredead, and make the

appropriate connections. Put the cover in position, arrange thethermometer and stirrer in

position so that they do not touch the bomb or the vessel,and start the stirrer (driven by a

small induction motor).

The temperature of water is noted. Fire the charge by closingthe firing circuit for two

seconds. Find out the maximum temperature attained by the waterin the calorimeter.

Make sure that all the oil has burned.

5.1.3. Calculations

Mass of the sample burned = m grams

Initial water temperature = TioC

Final water temperature = Tf0C

Water equivalent of calorimeter, mw = 2350 gms

Specific heat of water , Cw = 4.187 J/gm/k

Let CV be the calorific value of the fuel burned. Then the heatof burning of fuel=

heat given to the calorimeter and water.

i.e. mCV = mwCw[Tf-Ti]

CV = mwCw[Tf-Ti]/m

Heat due to the burning of cotton strip is not taken intoaccount.

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5.2. Viscosity

It is defined as measure of the resistance to gradualdeformation by shear or tensile

stress.

For liquids, it refers to „thickness‟.

Unit is centipoise (cp)

Instrument used : Cone and Plate Viscometer

Viscosity is the measure of the internal friction of a fluid.This friction becomes apparent

when a layer of fluid is made to move in relation to anotherlayer. The greater the friction, the

greater the amount of force required to cause this movement,which is called shear. Shearing

occurs whenever the fluid is physically moved or distributed asin pouring, spreading,

spraying, mixing etc. Highly viscous fluids therefore requiremore force to move than less

viscous materials. Sir Isaac Newton postulated that, forstraight, parallel, and uniform flow,

the shear stress τ between layers is proportional to thevelocity gradient, du/dy, in the

direction perpendicular to the layers.

τ = η du

dy

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Here the constant η is known as the coefficient of viscosity,the viscosity, the dynamic

viscosity or the Newtonian viscosity. The velocity gradientdu/dy is a measure of the change

in speed at which the intermediate layers move with respect toeach other and it describes the

shearing of the liquids, often referred as shear rate with unitas sec inverse the force per unit

area required top produce the shearing, is the shear stress (τ)and is expressed as dynes/cm2.

Thus, viscosity can be defined mathematically as

Poise= τ

dudy

The absolute viscosity of samples under conditions of definedshear rate and shear

stress were determined by a programmable Brookfield DV-II + coneand plate viscometer

thermo stated in the temperature range 25-60+-1C. Its cone andplate spindle geometry

requires a sample volume of only 0.5 to 2ml and generates shearrates in the range of 0.6 to

1500 reciprocal seconds.

The Brookfield DV-II+ cone and plate viscometer is of therotational variety. It

requires the torque that is needed to rotate an immersed element(the spindle) in a fluid. The

spindle is driven by a synchronous motor through a calibratedspring; the deflection of the

spring is indicated by a digital display. By using a multiplespeed transmission and

interchangeable spindles a variety of viscosity ranges can bemeasured. For a given viscosity,

the viscous drag or resistance to flow is proportional to thespindle‟s speed of rotation and is

related to the spindle‟s size and shape (geometry).the drag willincrease as the spindle s ize

and /or rotational speed increases. It follows that for a givenspindle geometry and speed, an

increase in viscosity will be indicated by an increase in thedeflection of the spring.

5.3. Acidity (Acid value)

5.3.1. Definition:

It is the mass of potassium hydroxide in milligrams that isrequired to neutralize 1g of

chemical substance

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5.3.2. Procedure:

Known amount of sample dissolved in organic solvent is titratedwith a solution of

KOH with known concentration and with phenolphthalein as a colorindicator

2×0.56 g of KOH is dissolved in 200 ml of distilled water. Takethis in a burette (50 ml). 1 g

of oil is added to 50 ml of methanol. Heat it at 400C (put amagnetic stirrer). Add two drops

of phenolphthalein as colour indicator. Titrate against 0.1 MKOH. The end point value is

noted.

Acidity = 2 X 0.56/V

5.4. Density and Specific Gravity

Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Its unit isg/cm³

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of density of asubstance to the

density of a reference standard. Here, water is used asreference standard.

Instrument used : Density bottle

It is made of glass, consists of a closely fitting stopper and acapillary tube inside it.

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A pycnometeralso called specific gravity bottle, is adevice used to determinethe density of a liquid. A pycnometer isusually made of glass, with a close-fitting ground

glass stopper with a capillary tube through it, so that airbubbles may escape from the

apparatus. This device enables a liquid's density to be measuredaccurately by reference to an

appropriate working fluid, such as water or mercury, using ananalytical balance.

If the flask is weighed empty, full of water, and full of aliquid whose relative density is

desired, the relative density of the liquid can easily becalculated. The particle density of a

powder, to which the usual method of weighing cannot beapplied, can also be determined

with a pycnometer. The powder is added to the pycnometer, whichis then weighed, giving

the weight of the powder sample. The pycnometer is then filledwith a liquid of known

density, in which the powder is completely insoluble. The weightof the displaced liquid can

then be determined, and hence the relative density or specificgravity of the powder.

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6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

6.1. Test Results

6.1.1. Calorific value

SAMPLE CALORIFIC VALUE (kJ/kg)

PE 42829.65

PP 42145.91

PS 37881.08

PE

(catalyst)

43817.97

PP

(catalyst)

33866.58

PS

(catalyst)

38519.28

PE

WASTE

40252.30

PP

WASTE

37166.63

PS

WASTE

37344.74

Petrol 44400

diesel 43200

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Calorific value vs. Polymer sample

X-axis: polymer sample Y-axis: calorific value

From the table and the graph, it can be concluded that calorificvalue of the

sample fuel is comparable to that of the reference petrol anddiesel. Also, the calorific valueis increased on using the catalystand the calorific value of the plastic waste is less than the

pure sample since it contains many other additives.

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

45000

50000

PE PP PS

pure sample

pure sample with

catalyst

plastic waste with

catalyst

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6.1.2. Viscosity

SAMPLE VISCOSITY (cp)

PE 1.92

PP 1.15

PS 1.31

PE

(catalyst)

1.39

PP

(catalyst)

.82

PS

(catalyst)

0.89

PE

WASTE

.64

PP

WASTE

.41

PS

WASTE

.44

Petrol .33

diesel 3.22

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Viscosity vs. Polymer sample

X-axis: polymer sample Y-axis: Viscosity

From the table and graph, it can be concluded that the viscosityis reduced on using

the catalyst and it is comparable to that of petrol and diesel.The relevance of the catalyst is

also very much understood from this test. The catalyst acts as amolecular sieve hence only

small hydrocarbon molecules are present in the output thereforetheir viscosity will be less

compared to samples without catalyst.

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

PE PP PS

pure sample

pure sample with

catalyst

plastic waste with

catalyst

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6.1.3. Acidity

ACIDITY (in pH)

PE 2.26

PP 2.51

PS 2.06

PE

(catalyst)

1.13

PP

(catalyst)

1.243

PS

(catalyst)

2.26

PE

WASTE

1.384

PP

WASTE

1.299

PS

WASTE

1.424

Petrol 1.02

diesel 1.01

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Acidity vs. Polymer sample

X-axis: polymer sample Y-axis: acidity

From the table and graph, it can be concluded that acidity ofthe samples is

closely approaching to the values of petrol and diesel and thevalues are reduced on using the

catalyst.

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

PE PP PS

pure sample

pure sample

with catalyst

plastic waste

with catalyst

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6.1.4. Density and Specific Gravity

Density

(g/cm³)

Specific

gravity

PE 1.151 1.151

PP 1.143 1.143

PS 1.359 1.359

PE(catalyst)

1.023 1.023

PP

(catalyst)

1.118 1.118

PS

(catalyst)

1.179 1.179

PE

WASTE

1.112 1.112

PP

WASTE

1.111 1.111

PS

WASTE

1.321 1.321

Petrol 1.063

Diesel 1.211

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Density vs. Polymer sample

X-axis: polymer sample Y-axis: density

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

PE PP PS

pure sample

pure sample with

catalyst

plastic waste with

catalyst

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Specific gravity vs. Polymer sample

X-axis: Polmer Sample Y-axis: specific gravity

From the table and graph, it can be concluded that both densityand specific gravity of

the samples are closely approaching the values of the standardreference petrol and diesel.

Also, the values are increased on using the catalyst.

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

PE PP PS

pure sample

pure sample with

catalyst

plastic waste with

catalyst

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6.2. Role of Catalyst in the Process

Here the catalyst used is HZSM-5. The optimization of wasteplastic as a function

of temperature in a batch mode reactor gave liquid yields ofabout 80% at a furnace

temperatures of about 600 degrees centigrade and one hrresidence time. Sodium carbonate or

lime addition to the pyrolysis and co-processing reactorsresults into an effective chlorine

capture and the chlorine content of pyrolysis oil reduces toabout 50-200ppm. The volatile

product from this process is scrubbed and condensedyielding about 10-15%gas and 75-80%

of a relatively heavy oil product.

The catalyst is a molecular sieve which will permit only thepassage of smallhydrocarbon molecules through them. The relevanceof catalyst is that, the desirable final

product is mixed oil that consists of gasoline, diesel oiland kerosene. In the absence of

molecular sieve (catalyst), the final product consists of largehydrocarbon chains which get

polymerized when brought into normal conditions. Thepresence of small chain hydrocarbons

in the product is achieved by the use of catalyst.

% Conversion Vs Catalyst

Figure: Comparison of HZSM--5 catalyst with other catalystsbased on its performance

From figure , it is very clear that the performance of thecatalyst HZSM-5 is very high compared to all

other catalysts. This is the reason why we use this particularcatalyst in our machine.

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6.3. Molecular Structure of the Catalyst

Figure: Molecular Structure of the Catalyst

From the figure, it is very clear that the catalyst is amolecular sieve which permits only the

passage of small hydrocarbon molecules through them.

ZSM-5, Zeolite Socony Mobil–5, isanaluminosilicatezeolite belonging to

the pentasil family of zeolites. Its chemical formula is NanAlnSi96–nO192·16H2O (0

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6.4. Process taking place in a Catalytic Reactor:

Pictorial Representation:

6.5. Features of Catalyst to be used:

Catalyst which is more selective to octanes

The octane is one of the molecule found in petrol. Hydrocarbonsused in petrol(gasoline) are given an octaneratingwhich relates to how effectively they performin

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the engine. A hydrocarbon with a high octane rating burns moresmoothly than one

with a low octane rating

Catalyst which possess limited deactivation by co*ke

co*ke is deposited on catalyst when vapors passes through themwhich may cause

catalyst deactivation

Catalyst which possess high thermal stability

Vapors at high temperature is passing through the catalyst whichwill affect its

stability

6.6. Cracking of Molecules in Reactor in Presence ofCatalyst

Table: Cracking of Molecules in Reactor in Presence ofCatalyst

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The figure shows the breaking of different hydrocarbon chains inthe reactor in the presence

of the catalyst.

6.7. Regeneration of catalyst:

co*ke will be deposited on catalyst during the process. But thiscatalyst can be regenerated by

burning. Hence, co*ke deposited is removed.

6.8. Need of Catalytic Cracking:

The final product we get is mixed oil that consists of gasoline,diesel

oil, kerosene. In absence of the molecular sieve(catalyst) , thefinal product consist of large

hydrocarbon chains which get polymerized when brought intonormal conditions hence we

need to break or permit only the presence of small chainhydrocarbons in the product. This is

achieved by the catalytic cracker.

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7. Conclusion

Cost for the fuel is increasing day by day and also the problemarising

due to the improper waste disposal of plastics are increasing inour country.

This plastic to fuel machine can solve both these problem in themost efficient

manner. This process offer many advantages such as:

1) Problem of disposal of waste plastic is solved.

2) Waste plastic is converted into high value fuels.

3) Environmental pollution is controlled.

4) Industrial and automobile fuel requirement shall be fulfilledto some extent at lower

price.

5) No pollutants are created during cracking of plastics.

6) The crude oil and the gas can be used for generation ofelectricity.

We have carried out the process with and without catalyst andthe test results have improved

by using the catalyst:

Calorific value increased

Acid value decreased

Viscosity decreased

Density and specific gravity decreased

Lastly, further studies are required in future for economicimprovementand its

design flexibility.

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8. References

Converting Waste Plastics into a Resource,Compendium ofTechnologies

Compiled by

United Nations Environmental Programme

Division of Technology, Industry and Economics

International Environmental Technology Centre

Osaka/Shiga, Japan

Thermal Decomposition of Polymers

Craig L. Beyler and Marcelo Hirschler

Handbook of Fluidization andFluid–Particle Systems

Edited by

Wen- Ching Yang (Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. MARCEL.

Sustainable Plastics - website promoting bioplastics:

www.sustainableplastics.org/

US Energy Information Association: Crude Oil facts

FAQs:www.tonto.eia.doe.gov/ask/crudeoil_faqs.asp#plastics

ChemTrust–information on Chemicals andHealth:www.chemtrust.org.uk/

Plastics Industry Perspective on the health impacts fromPVC:

www.pvc.org/What-is-PVC/How-is-PVC-made/PVCAdditives

Polymer degradation to fuels over micro-porous catalystsas a novel tertiary

plastic recycling method, Polymer Degradation and

Stability

http://www.sustainableplastics.org/http://www.sustainableplastics.org/http://www.tonto.eia.doe.gov/ask/crudeoil_faqs.asp#plasticshttp://www.tonto.eia.doe.gov/ask/crudeoil_faqs.asp#plasticshttp://www.tonto.eia.doe.gov/ask/crudeoil_faqs.asp#plasticshttp://www.chemtrust.org.uk/http://www.chemtrust.org.uk/http://www.chemtrust.org.uk/http://www.pvc.org/What-is-PVC/How-is-PVC-made/PVCAdditiveshttp://www.pvc.org/What-is-PVC/How-is-PVC-made/PVCAdditiveshttp://www.pvc.org/What-is-PVC/How-is-PVC-made/PVCAdditiveshttp://www.chemtrust.org.uk/http://www.tonto.eia.doe.gov/ask/crudeoil_faqs.asp#plasticshttp://www.sustainableplastics.org/

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KarishmaGobin, George Manos

Thermal degradation of municipal plastic waste forproduction of fuel-like

hydrocarbons, Polymer Degradation and Stability

N. Miskolczia, L. Barthaa, G. Dea´ka, B. Jo´ verb

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Certifications

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